The Development of the Canon of the New Testament

Valentinus, and the Valentinians (2nd - 3rd century)   

Valentinus was the founder of Roman and Alexandrian schools of Gnosticism, an eclectic, dualistic system of religious doctrines postulating the evil origin of matter and the revelatory enlightenment, or gnosis, of an elite. Valentinus flourished 136-165 CE in Rome and Alexandria. Valentinian communities, by their expansion and long standing, provided a major challenge to 2nd and 3rd century Christian theology.

According to Irenaeus, Valentinus was a native of Egypt who studied philosophy at Alexandria. His disciples claimed that he had been educated by Theodas (or Theudas), a pupil of the apostle Paul. He moved to Rome c. 136 CE, during the time of Pope St. Hyginus, where he established a large school and spread his doctrines in the West. He claimed to have received revelations from the Logos in a vision. Later, aspiring to be elected bishop of Rome "on account of his intellectual force and eloquence", he was passed over, whereupon he seceded from the Church and moved away from Rome c. 140, perhaps to Cyprus.

Valentinus' system is an elaborate theogonic and cosmogonic epic. It describes in 3 acts the creation, fall, and the redemption; first in heaven, then on earth. The spiritual world or pleroma comprises 30 aeons forming a succession of syzygies (pairs). The visible world owes its origin to the fall of Sophia (wisdom), whose offspring, the Demiurge, is identified with the God of the Old Testament. Human beings belong to one of 3 classes, the spiritual people (pneumatikoi, or true Gnostics), those who merely posses a soul (psychikoi, or ordinary unenlightened church members), and the rest of humankind, who are made solely of matter (hylikoi) and are given over to eternal perdition.

Valentinus derived his system from Oriental and Greek speculations (including Pythagorean elements), from Christian ideals, and from his own fertile imagination. By employing fanciful exegesis he attached his own mythological speculations to apostolic words, such as Logos, Only Begotten, Truth, Pleroma, Aeons, and Ecclesia. The Valentinian system developed into Eastern and Western forms in greater complexity, although the earlier structure was similar to Pauline mystical theology, with its emphasis on the instrumentality of Christ's death and resurrection in effecting Christian deliverance.

In listing the Valentinian canon of books, we will use the writings of these Valentinians:

• Heracleon
• Ptolemy
• Marcus

We also use these writings from the Nag Hammadi Library, which seem to derive from Valentinus:

Writing	English Translation(s)
Gospel of Truth	[Robinson] , The Gnosis Archive
Gospel of Philip	[Robinson] , The Gnosis Archive , Noncanonical Homepage
Treatise on Resurrection	[Robinson] , The Gnosis Archive

Irenaeus reports that the Valentinians wrote the Gospel of Truth. Scholars are divided as to whether the Nag Hammadi Gospel of Truth derives from Valentinus. More like a meditation on the Christian life and salvation than a traditional gospel, the treatise shows little trace of the elaborate speculations that are associated with the Valentinian system. Some scholars, however, believe that these speculations are not emphasized in order to conciliate orthodox opinion. We will follow the latter opinion. The opinions on the other two writings are not controversial.

These New Testament books are cited or quoted from in the writings just mentioned:

• Gospel according to Matthew
• Gospel according to Mark
• Gospel according to Luke
• Gospel according to John
• Romans
• I Corinthians
• II Corinthians
• Galatians
• Ephesians
• Philippians
• Colossians
• I Peter
• I John
• Revelation of John

Irenaeus and Origen report that the Valentinians regarded these books as scripture:

• Gospel of Truth
• Preaching of Peter

Heracleon (middle 2nd century, Italy)

Heracleon, a disciple of Valentinus, wrote a detailed commentary on the Gospel according to John, probably after the middle of the 2nd century. Origen preserved many fragments of the commentary and criticizes them in his own commentary. Heracleon's allegory is carried out completely in such a way that, for example, the Demiurge speaks through a Baptist, and the Samaritan woman appears as a type of the pneumatic woman who is dissatisfied with the Jacob's well of the Old Testament and so turns to the living water of gnosis and longs for her future spouse in the pleroma.

Heracleon's commentary on John also includes quotations from and allusions to passages in Matthew, as well as allusions to Romans, I Corinthians, and possibly Galatians.

According to Origen, Heracleon used the Preaching of Peter; quotations from Origen are available.

Ptolemy

Ptolemy, a disciple of Valentinus, is known as the author of an open letter to a wealthy and eminent Christian lady, Flora by name, whom he tries to convert to the Valentinian system. He deals chiefly with the objection that the creation of the world and the composition of the Old Testament could not have been the work of the highest God. He appeals to apostolic tradition and to the words of Christ, who alone knows the Father of all and first revealed him. More than once Ptolemy refers to what 'our Savior' has said, quoting in these cases Jesus' words as presented in the Gospel according to Matthew. Once he refers to Paul, and several time quotes from Romans, I Corinthians, and Ephesians. He also quotes the Gospel according to John 1:3, but without naming him.

Marcus (middle 2nd century, Rhone valley)

Marcus, a disciple of Valentinus, appears to have been an older contemporary of Irenaeus who speaks of him as though he were still living and teaching in the Rhone valley (Adv. Haer. 1.13.2). The fragments that remain of Marcus' teachings contain allusions to passages in Matthew, Mark, and Luke. It seems that he accepted one or more of Paul's Epistles, and the Apostle is referred to by name in one place. The Marcosians sought to show by means of the system of gematria that the heavenly Christ came upon the earthly Jesus in the form of a dove at the time of his baptism in the Jordan. Proof was found in the fact that the numerical value of the letters in the Greek word for dove comes to 801, which is also found in the statement of Christ in the Revelation of John (1:8): 'I am the Alpha and Omega' (1+800=801).

Gospel of Philip (2nd century(?) Syria(?))

The original of this Coptic document from Nag Hammadi certainly was written in Greek. It provides striking confirmation of some aspects of Irenaeus' account of Valentinianism and to this extent confirms the substantial reliability of his report. New Testament echoes and allusions in Gospel of Philip range from clear and unmistakable quotations to insignificant reminiscences. According to a tally made by [Wilson]:

Of the four Gospels, the author's preference is clearly for Matthew and John, although there is at least one distinct allusion to Luke; there does not appear to be any evidence for knowledge of Mark. With the Fourth Gospel may be linked a couple allusions to I John, and there is at least one clear citation of I Peter. Among the Pauline letters he knows and quotes from Romans, I and II Corinthians, Galatians, and Philippians.

The author of the Gospel of Philip never identifies any of the sources from which he quotes, nor does he ever employ any formula of citation (such as 'it is written'). Often the allusions are worked into the context, suggesting that their language had become a natural vehicle for the expression of his ideas. All of this implies, of course, that he had given careful attention to some of the New Testament books and saw fit to adopt their ideas and, at times, their phraseology.

Treatise on Resurrection (late 2nd century)

The original of this Coptic document from Nag Hammadi certainly was written in Greek. It is permeated with Valentinian symbols and imagery. Using Romans 8:17 and Ephesians 2:5-6, the author declares that the elect have already participated in Christ's death, resurrection, and ascension (45:24-28). Immediately following death a spiritual resurrection of the believer takes place, and an allusion to the Transfiguration scene in the Synoptic Gospels is made in order to prove the continuity between the deceased and the resurrected person (48:3-11).

The Valentinians and the Gospel according to Matthew

For details about a specific Valentinian author or writing, please consult the corresponding references:

The Valentinians and the Gospel according to Mark

For details about a specific Valentinian author or writing, please consult the corresponding references:

The Valentinians and the Gospel according to Luke

For details about a specific Valentinian author or writing, please consult the corresponding references:

The Valentinians and the Gospel according to John

For details about a specific Valentinian author or writing, please consult the corresponding references:

The Valentinians and Romans

For details about a specific Valentinian author or writing, please consult the corresponding references:

The Valentinians and I Corinthians

For details about a specific Valentinian author or writing, please consult the corresponding references:

The Valentinians and II Corinthians

For details about a specific Valentinian author or writing, please consult the corresponding references:

The Valentinians and Galatians

For details about a specific Valentinian author or writing, please consult the corresponding references:

The Valentinians and Ephesians

For details about a specific Valentinian author or writing, please consult the corresponding references:

The Valentinians and Philippians

For details about a specific Valentinian author or writing, please consult the corresponding references:

The Valentinians and Colossians

For details about a specific Valentinian author or writing, please consult the corresponding references:

The Valentinians and I Peter

For details about a specific Valentinian author or writing, please consult the corresponding references:

The Valentinians and I John

For details about a specific Valentinian author or writing, please consult the corresponding references:

The Valentinians and Revelation of John

For details about a specific Valentinian author or writing, please consult the corresponding references:

The Valentinians and the Gospel of Truth

Irenaeus reports (Adv. Haer. 3.11.9):

But the followers of Valentinus, putting away all fear, bring forward their own compositions and boast that they have more Gospels than really exist. Indeed their audacity has gone so far that they entitle their recent composition the Gospel of Truth, though it agrees in nothing with the Gospels of the apostles, and so no Gospel of theirs is free from blasphemy. For if what they produce is the Gospel of Truth, and is different from those which the apostles handed down to us, those who care to can learn how it can be show from the Scriptures themselves that [then] what is handed down from the apostles is not the Gospel of Truth.

The Valentinians and the Preaching of Peter

Origen reports (Comm. in Joh. 13.17):

Now there is much to adduce from the words quoted by Heracleon from the so-called Preaching of Peter, and regarding them inquiry has to made concerning the book, whether it is genuine or not genuine or mixed. But for that very reason we would willingly pass it by and merely refer to the fact that it states that Peter taught: (God) should not be worshipped in the manner of the Greeks, who take material things and serve stocks and stones. Also the Divine ought not to be worshipped in the manner of the Jews, for they, who believe that they alone know God, rather do not know him and worship angels, the month and the moon.